Sau keeb kwm yog lus dag loj

2024 Tus sau: Seth Attwood | [email protected]. Kawg hloov kho: 2023-12-16 16:06

Peb feem coob xav tias kev dag keeb kwm ntawm lub ntiaj teb no tsis yooj yim sua. Ib tug neeg niaj hnub, coj los ntawm keeb kwm ntawm Scaliger-Pitalius, tsis txawm xav tias zaj dab neeg tiag tiag tau hloov los ntawm qhov tsis tseeb.

Nyob rau hauv lub lem ntawm lub XVI-XVII centuries. Nyob rau hauv Russia, muaj kev sib cais nom tswv thiab, vim li ntawd, kev hloov pauv hauv huab tais huab tais. Nws yog Cov Teeb Meem Loj, uas yog qhov pib ntawm kev cais tawm hauv Western Europe. Tib lub ntiaj teb lub teb chaws Ottoman uas tau tshwm sim tau ploj mus, thiab cov thawj coj ntawm Russia-Horde nyob rau sab hnub poob Europe, sab laug yam tsis muaj lub zog nruab nrab, pib muaj kev tawm tsam ntshav rau thaj chaw thiab thaj chaw ntawm lub hwj chim (kev tsim ntawm cov teb chaws Europe ywj pheej). Tshiab minted cov thawj coj sab hnub poob thiab Romanovs uas txeeb tau lub hwj chim hauv Russia yuav tsum tau sau keeb kwm tshiab uas yuav ua kom pom tseeb lawv txoj cai rau lub zwm txwv. Tom qab ntawd, historians yuav hu lub sij hawm no lub hloov dua siab tshiab. Cov phau ntawv keeb kwm sparsely piav txog nws raws li kev ntseeg schism.

Ntau tus neeg nyob sab Europe tsis paub txog txoj cai ntawm cov neeg hloov kho rau lub sijhawm ntev thiab txuas ntxiv kev sib ntaus sib tua kom rov qab los ntawm lub tebchaws qub. Tam sim no ciam teb ntawm cov teb chaws Europe tau txiav txim siab nyob rau hauv 17th-18th centuries. raws li kev ua tsov rog ntshav. Qhov yuav tsum tau sau keeb kwm tshiab rallied cov neeg hloov kho.

Txhawm rau muab qhov tseem ceeb rau lawv lub teb chaws thiab cov poj koob yawm txwv, Western cov thawj coj tau ncua lawv cov keeb kwm los ntawm ntau pua thiab ntau txhiab xyoo. Qhov no yog li cas tshiab eras, kingdoms thiab legendary personalities tau tshwm sim, uas qhov tseeb yog phantoms ntawm cov neeg nto moo ntawm 11th-17th centuries. United Russia-Horde faj tim teb chaws. Yog li, dhau ntau tiam neeg, nws muaj peev xwm tsim tau ib tus neeg tshiab ntawm cov neeg ntawm cov tub ntxhais hluas lub xeev. Cov neeg Russians muaj lawv cov nplua nuj yav dhau los nyiag.

Nyob rau hauv lub XVI-XVII centuries. Cov lus tshiab tau tsim thiab tuaj rau hauv kev siv tsis yog ib lub Koom Txoos Slavonic lus (piv txwv li, qhov tseeb ntawm kev luam tawm ntawm cov phau ntawv nyob rau hauv Slavic lus nyob rau sab hnub poob teb chaws Europe nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua 16th yog paub zoo rau historians): Fabkis, Lus Askiv, German, thiab lwm yam. Ancient Greek thiab Ancient Latin kuj tau tsim nyob rau lub sijhawm no. Lub erection ntawm kev hais lus thiab kev cai dab qhuas teeb meem tso cai rau cov hloov kho kom tshem tawm lub hav zoov ntawm lub ntiaj teb no hwj chim ib zaug los ntawm cov neeg lub cim xeeb.

Kev dag ntawm kev sau keeb kwm

Qhov tseeb, cov haujlwm ntawm kev dag keeb kwm yog lub xeev tag nrho-European program.

• Lub Flemish Jesuit Order tau koom nrog kev tsim cov ntaub ntawv keeb kwm ntawm cov neeg ntseeg (los ntawm 1643 txog 1794, 53 ntim tau luam tawm!). Rau lub sijhawm ntawd, daim duab tsuas yog loj heev! Kev ua haujlwm cua daj cua dub ntawm Flemish Order tau cuam tshuam los ntawm Fabkis Revolution.
• Lwm qhov chaw loj rau kev tsim cov ntawv cuav yog Benedictine Order. Nws yog paub tias cov hauj sam ntawm qhov kev txiav txim tsis tsuas yog reprinted ancient manuscripts, tab sis kuj kho lawv.
• Tus Thawj Kav Tebchaws Fab Kis Fab Kis Jacques Paul Minh tau tshaj tawm cov haujlwm ntawm Benedictine cov txiv plig nyob rau nruab nrab ntawm lub xyoo pua 19th. "Patrology" suav nrog 221 phau ntawv sau Latin thiab 161 phau ntawv ntawm Greek keeb kwm!
• Tsis tas li ntawd, feem ntau yuav, Scaliger tus kheej tau sau cov ntawv tsis tiav ntawm Eusebius Panfilus (tus thawj raug liam tias ploj lawm). Xyoo 1787, txoj haujlwm no tau pom nyob rau hauv kev txhais lus Armenian. Txawm hais tias qhov pom ntawm cov keeb kwm yav dhau los qhia txog kev dag: cov rooj sib tham ntawm cov xwm txheej raws nraim rov qab cov lus uas tau luam tawm los ntawm Scaliger tsev kawm ntawv ntawm 17th-18th centuries. Txog ¾ ntawm cov hnub uas cov kws sau keeb kwm thoob ntiaj teb siv niaj hnub no yog coj los ntawm keeb kwm ntawm Eusebius Panfilos. Cov hnub no tsis muaj tseeb!

Qhov teeb meem ntawm vocalization ntawm cov ntawv qub

Nyob rau hauv ancient sij hawm, raws li koj paub, tsuas yog "skeletons" ntawm cov lus los ntawm consonants. Cov lus tsis muaj los yog hloov nrog cov ntawv me me. Cov ntaub ntawv sau tau kim heev, yog li cov kws sau ntawv tau cawm nws los ntawm kev hla cov lus. Qhov no yog hu ua.qhov teeb meem ntawm vocalization ntawm ancient manuscripts (thiab biblical, tshwj xeeb). Nws yog qhov tseeb tias tsis muaj lus nug txog kev tsim cov lus zoo nkauj heev nrog cov khoom tsis muaj! Nws tsuas yog tom qab kev tshawb pom ntawm thev naus laus zis ntawm cov ntawv loj loj uas muaj lub sijhawm rau kev tawm dag zog hauv kev tsim cov lus zoo. Yog li ntawd, nyob rau hauv Nruab Nrab Hnub nyoog, ib hom lus sau cia yog tsim los ntawm ntau haiv neeg. Nws yog ib qho xav tsis thoob tias cov ntawv qub qub tau sau rau hauv cov suab lus zoo! Piv txwv li, tej hauj lwm ntawm Titus Livy tsuas amaze lub tswv yim nrog ib tug yeeb yuj thiab ntev-cua narration. Cov ntaub ntawv keeb kwm hais tias Titus Livy tau sau cov lus zoo li no nyob rau xyoo pua BC. e. 144 lus! Tab sis daim ntawv tseem tsis tau muaj nyob rau hauv ancient sij hawm, thiab cov neeg sau ntawv siv parchment. Qhov no txhais tau tias Titus Livy ua tiav nws lub suab ntawm nws.

Cia peb saib seb muaj parchment li cas.

Ua ib daim ntawv ntawm parchment, nws yuav tsum tau:

1. Rip daim tawv nqaij los ntawm ib tug yaj los yog nyuj, tsis pub tshaj rau lub lis piam;
2. Soak cov tawv nqaij ntawm cov tawv nqaij hauv dej ntws rau rau hnub;
3. Tshem tawm ntawm daim tawv nqaij los ntawm daim tawv nqaij nrog ib tug scraper;
4. Tshaj tawm thiab khaws cov tawv nqaij ntub rau 12-20 hnub, kom cov txheej txheem ntawm festering loosened cov ntaub plaub;
5. Cais daim tawv nqaij ntawm cov ntaub plaub;
6. Txhawm rau tshem tawm cov txiv qaub tshaj, ferment daim tawv nqaij hauv bran;
7. Txhawm rau rov qab softness tom qab ziab, tshuab hla ntawm daim tawv nqaij nrog cov nroj tsuag rho tawm;
8. RUB qe dawb los yog dawb lead (los yog pob zeb pumice) rau hauv cov tawv nqaij uas muaj hmoov av kom tshem tawm qhov tsis sib xws.

Kev siv tshuab kom tau txais parchment yog qhov nyuaj heev uas tus nqi ntawm parchment yog sib npaug rau cov nqi ntawm cov khoom muaj nqis. Nws tsis haum rau hauv kuv lub taub hau pes tsawg tus yaj thiab nyuj nws coj mus rau cov sau phau ntawv thaum ub los ua kom lawv cov kev txawj ntse! Nws yog ib qho nyuaj rau ntseeg hais tias nyob rau hauv ancient sij hawm tsiaj raug tua nyob rau hauv tag nrho herds rau lub hom phiaj ntawm tau txais cov ntaub ntawv rau kev sau ntawv. Nws zoo nkaus li muaj peev xwm xav tias qhov hu ua. Cov ntawv qub tau sau rau hauv Nruab Nrab Hnub nyoog nrog cov ntawv tsim tau zoo.

Zoo forger

Qhov tshwm sim ntawm kev ua xyem xyav kuj tseem txhawb nqa los ntawm qhov tseeb tias cov haujlwm ntawm cov kws sau ntawv qub tau pom tsuas yog hauv Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries). Koj yuav tsis pom ib tus kws sau keeb kwm hauv ib lub tsev qiv ntawv lossis tsev cia puav pheej. Tsuas yog cov ntawv luam thiab kev txhais lus (qee zaum ob lossis peb npaug), ua, raws li peb tau lees paub, los ntawm cov ntawv ploj lawm.

Cornelius Tacitus, ib tug ancient Roman historian uas liam tias nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua 1st. n. e., feem ntau yog paub los ntawm Thawj thiab Thib Ob Cov Tshuaj sau npe sau los ntawm nws. Cov thawj, raws li koj yuav tau twv, tsis muaj sia nyob, tab sis lub thiaj li hu ua. cov ntawv luam raug khaws cia hauv lub tsev qiv ntawv ntawm Florence. Thawj thawj zaug, zaj dab neeg ntawm Tacitus tau luam tawm xyoo 1470 los ntawm Cov Tshuaj Thib Ob lossis nws daim ntawv luam, raws li cov ntawv tshaj tawm. Cov keeb kwm hazy ntawm kev tshawb pom ntawm daim ntawv teev npe no yog raws li hauv qab no.

Nws ntseeg tau tias nyob rau hauv 1425 Poggio Bracciolini tau txais ib daim ntawv teev cov ntawv sau los ntawm lub tsev teev ntuj, uas suav nrog cov khoom muag ntawm cov hauj lwm ntawm Tacitus. Bracciolini yog ib tus neeg xyaum ua tsis tau zoo: nws, zoo li chameleon, tuaj yeem sau tau zoo li Titus Livy, Petronius, Seneca thiab ntau lwm tus. Lub npe nrov humanist nyob rau ntawm qhov loj thiab xav tau nyiaj tas li, yog li nws tsis yog qhov xav tsis thoob tias qhov chaw ntawm cov nyiaj tau los ntxiv rau Bracciolini yog tsim thiab kho cov ntawv luam ntawm cov keeb kwm yav dhau los. Nrog kev pab los ntawm Nicola Nicolli (ib tug Florentine phau ntawv tshaj tawm), Bracciolini tau teeb tsa, raws li lawv tam sim no hu nws, kev lag luam mus tas li ntawm kev ua cov ntaub ntawv qub (ntau tus neeg koom tes thiab, feem ntau, kev lag luam tau muab tso rau hauv qhov loj). Thiab, raws li lawv hais, nws rushed …

Qhov kev pom zoo ntawm Bracciolini

Nyob rau hauv lub pej thuam uas tso tseg ntawm Sant-Gomensky monastery, Bracciolini "pom" lub tsev qiv ntawv loj ntawm cov ntawv sau thaum ub: cov haujlwm ntawm Quintilian, Petian, Flac, Probo, Marcello. Tom qab ib pliag, tus neeg tsis txaus ntseeg (tus kws tshawb fawb keeb kwm yav dhau los) tau tshawb pom cov haujlwm ntawm Calpurnius. Bracciolini liam tias muag cov ntawv sau qub thiab lawv cov ntawv luam rau cov nyiaj loj. Piv txwv li, nrog cov nyiaj tau txais los ntawm kev muag cov ntawv luam ntawm Titus Livius rau Alphonse ntawm Aragon, Poggio Bracciolini yuav ib lub tsev villa hauv Florence. Lwm cov neeg siv khoom tsis txaus ntseeg thiab cov neeg ua yeeb yam yog Este, Sforzo, Medici, Ducal House of Burgundy, aristocrats ntawm Askiv, Italian cardinals, cov neeg nplua nuj, thiab cov tsev kawm qib siab uas nyuam qhuav pib lossis nthuav lawv cov tsev qiv ntawv.

Tom qab tau txais ib daim ntawv teev cov ntawv sau los ntawm lub tsev teev ntuj (xws li "History" ntawm Tacitus) hauv 1425, Bracciolini tam sim ntawd muab tus tshaj tawm Nicolli mus yuav cov phau ntawv ntawm cov sau phau ntawv thaum ub tau piav nyob ntawd. Nicolli pom zoo, tab sis Poggio, nyob rau hauv ntau yam pretexts, ncua lub deal rau ob peb xyoos. Poob nws qhov sov so, Nichollly tau thov kom xa nws phau ntawv teev npe. "History" ntawm Tacitus tsis nyob ntawd! Thiab thaum kawg ntawm XIX caug xyoo. Cov kws tshawb fawb Goshar thiab Ross, uas tau kawm txog cov hauj lwm ntawm Tacitus, tuaj mus rau qhov xaus tias kev sau ntawv ntawm Tacitus 'History belongs rau 15th, thiab tsis mus rau lub xyoo pua 1, thiab tau sau los ntawm cov twb paub Poggio Bracciolini (History piav txog cov xwm txheej. ntawm 12-15 centuries). Dab tsi yog tshuab los ntawm classic!

Fake epics

Vaclav Hanka, ib tug neeg tseem ceeb ntawm lub Renaissance, tau mob siab rau ua pov thawj theem siab ntawm kev coj noj coj ua ntawm nws cov neeg (Czech) uas nws tau tsim cov ntawv sau ntawm Kraledvorsk thiab Zelenogorsk, uas tau liam tias muaj cov lus dab neeg qub Czech thiab cov dab neeg. Qhov cuav tau pom los ntawm Yange Bauer. Hanka ua haujlwm hauv lub tsev qiv ntawv hauv tebchaws Prague txij li xyoo 1823, uas tsis muaj ib daim ntawv sau tseg uas nws tsis muaj tes. Tus tua rog rau lub teb chaws lub tswv yim txiav txim cov ntawv, pasted nplooj ntawv, hla tag nrho cov kab lus! Nws txawm tuaj nrog lub tsev kawm ntawv ntawm cov neeg ua yeeb yam thaum ub thiab nkag mus rau lawv cov npe rau hauv cov ntawv sau qub.

Prosper Merimee luam tawm Gusli (cov nkauj sau) hauv 1827 raws li kev txhais lus los ntawm cov lus Balkan. Txawm tias Pushkin txhais "Gusli" ua lus Lavxias. Merimee nws tus kheej tau nthuav tawm nws cov lus dag nyob rau hauv qhov thib ob tsab ntawm cov nkauj, teev nyob rau hauv ib qho kev qhia tsis zoo rau cov neeg uas poob rau qhov khoom noj. Nws yuav tsum raug sau tseg tias "Gusli" yog qhov kev vam meej loj ntawm cov neeg sau keeb kwm uas tsis ntseeg lawv qhov tseeb hauv qhov tsawg kawg nkaus.

Xyoo 1849, Karelian-Finnish epic "Kalevala" tau luam tawm, uas, raws li nws tau tshwm sim tom qab, tau tsim los ntawm xibfwb Elias Lönnrot.

Lwm cov yeeb yaj kiab cuav: "Zaj Nkauj ntawm Sab", "Beowulf", "Song of the Nibelungs", "Song of Roland", Thiab muaj ntau yam piv txwv ntawm tej hauj lwm stylized li cov ntaub ntawv thaum ub.

Yuav ua li cas yav tas los puas lawm

Rau keeb kwm tshiab los hloov qhov tseeb, sau phau ntawv tshiab thiab forging cov ntaub ntawv qub tsis txaus. Nws yog ib qho tsim nyog los rhuav tshem cov ntawv sau uas tawm tsam lub tswv yim tshiab, tsim los ntawm cov neeg hloov kho. Lub Inquisition hlawv kaum tawm txhiab phau ntawv uas pom tias tsis raug. Xyoo 1559, Vatican tau qhia txog "Index of Forbidden Books", uas tsis yog cov phau ntawv ib leeg xwb, tab sis kuj muaj cov npe ntawm cov neeg sau ntawv txwv. Yog tias tsawg kawg ib phau ntawv ntawm ib tus kws sau ntawv tau suav nrog hauv Index, ces tus so, sau los ntawm nws, kuj tau tshawb nrhiav thiab rhuav tshem. Ib qho piv txwv yog phau ntawv "Slavic Kingdom", uas muaj cov npe ntawm cov thawj coj thiab cov kws sau ntawv uas Mavr Orbini siv thaum sau ntawv. Feem ntau ntawm cov neeg sau ntawv no tsis paub hnub no lawm. Hauv Index, txhua tus tau sau tias "tus neeg sau ntawv raug foom phem".

Kuj tseem muaj cov npe ntawm phau ntawv yuav tsum tau ntxuav thiab ntxuav. Cov thawj coj tau tsim txwv tsis pub tshaj tawm, tshem tawm qee qhov ntawm cov ntawv nyeem, tshawb nrhiav hauv tsev thiab ntawm ciam teb. Cov commissars ntawm lub tsev hais plaub dawb ceev tau ua hauj lwm nyob rau hauv tag nrho cov harbors. Kev puas tsuaj ntawm cov phau ntawv txuas ntxiv mus txog thaum lub cim xeeb ntawm lub neej ntawm Great Empire raug tshem tawm.

Geographic Maps

Niaj hnub no, tsuas yog ob peb daim ntawv qhia qub tau muaj sia nyob, uas, raws li txoj cai, raug kho thiab luam tawm yam tsis muaj kev nthuav dav. Tab sis, txawm nyob ntawm cov uas twb muaj lawm, koj tuaj yeem pom cov npe rov qab ntawm cov chaw sib txawv thiab cov dej ntws. Qhov no tsis yog xav tsis thoob, vim hais tias, nthuav nws lub hwj chim, lub teb chaws Ottoman tau pauv cov npe Lavxias-Turkic mus rau thaj av tshiab. Nyob rau hauv lub XVII-XVIII centuries. Nyob rau hauv Russia thiab Europe, feem ntau ntawm cov qub imperial lub npe tau erased, thiab ib co tau tsiv mus. Piv txwv li, txoj moo zoo Yeluxalees, uas tau pauv los ntawm lub qub Constantinople mus rau thaj chaw ntawm Palestine. Lwm qhov piv txwv yog Veliky Novgorod, uas yog lub nroog cheeb tsam ntawm Vladimir-Suzdal Rus nrog nws qhov chaw hauv Yaroslavl (Yaroslavov Dvorische). Veliky Novgorod raug xa mus rau ntawm daim ntawv ntawm lub tsev txhab nyiaj ntawm lub Volga mus rau lub ntug dej ntawm lub Volkhov.

Ua tsaug rau cov manipulations tau ua, ntau lub nroog Lavxias tau xaus rau hauv lwm qhov chaw thiab txawm tias sab av loj. Tom qab kho cov txee hauv cheeb tsam, cov tub txib tau raug xa tawm mus qhia cov neeg nyob hauv lawv lub teb chaws yav dhau los. Sij hawm dhau mus, ntau tus tau pom zoo nrog cov lus sib cav ntawm cov txiv tsev teev ntuj, thiab rau cov uas tsis pom zoo, cov hluav taws kub hnyiab thiab ntau lwm yam kev ntxias yeej ib txwm npaj. Cov txheej txheem ntawm kev kho daim ntawv qhia tau ua tiav tsuas yog nyob rau xyoo 19th.

Keeb kwm mus lawm

Yog tias koj tseem tsis ntseeg qhov muaj nyob hauv yav dhau los ntawm kev dag ntxias thoob ntiaj teb, luv luv piav qhia saum toj no, kuv xav kom nco qab txog cov xwm txheej tsis ntev los no, uas yog, kev tawg ntawm USSR. Txhawm rau disunite cov neeg uas tau nyob rau ntau pua xyoo nyob rau hauv ib lub xeev, nws yog txaus rau instill nyob rau hauv lawv lub tswv yim ntawm kev ywj pheej. Qhib cov phau ntawv niaj hnub no ntawm keeb kwm ntawm Georgia, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, Kazakhstan, Estonia thiab koj yuav txaus ntshai los ntawm qhov koj nyeem. Nws yog qhov yooj yim: cov tub ntxhais hluas uas tsim tawm tshiab xav tau, los ntawm txhua txoj kev, kom pom tseeb lawv cov lus thov rau thaj chaw keeb kwm. Kuv xav tias kuv twb tau sau txog qhov no nyob qhov twg? Keeb kwm rov hais dua nws tus kheej, kuv cov phooj ywg …