XIX caug xyoo. Boom ntawm fakes

2024 Tus sau: Seth Attwood | [email protected]. Kawg hloov kho: 2023-12-16 16:06

Qhov ntsuas ntawm qhov kev dag ntxias tsuas yog amazing. Kev liam tias cov ntawv Greek thaum ub, cov ntawv ntawm huab tais, cov kws tshawb fawb nto moo, thiab ntau lwm cov ntaub ntawv raug tsim los ntawm ntau txhiab leej. Piv txwv li, nyob nruab nrab ntawm 1822 thiab 1835 ib leeg, ntau tshaj 12,000 alegedly original manuscripts of famous people are sell in France …

Piv txwv li, nyob rau lub caij ntuj sov xyoo 1867, tus kws tshawb fawb Fabkis nto moo, tus lej lej Chal, ntawm lub rooj sib tham ntawm lub koom haum (Academy of Sciences) tau nthuav tawm rau nws cov npoj yaig ob peb tsab ntawv los ntawm Pascal rau Askiv chemist Boyle thiab Newton, nrog rau cov ntawv los ntawm Newton's. niam, Pascal. Cov ntawv no tau hloov pauv cov tswv yim hais txog kev txhim kho kev tshawb fawb. Lawv tau qhia tias Pascal tau ntxias tus menyuam muaj kaum ib xyoos Newton kom ua lej tiag. Tsis tas li ntawd, Pascal tau nthuav tawm nws cov txiaj ntsig ntawm nws txoj kev tshawb fawb, suav nrog txoj cai ntawm kev nqus dej thoob ntiaj teb, uas ua rau Newton nto moo raws li kev txawj ntse ntse! Lub tswv yim tsim los ntawm cov ntawv no tsis tuaj yeem cuam tshuam los ntawm cov neeg tawm tsam ntawm cov kws tshawb fawb Askiv, uas tau pib xav tias tau txiav txim siab los ntawm kev xav ntawm kev txaus siab rau lub tebchaws.

Cov neeg Askiv tau thov kom nthuav tawm cov ntsiab lus ntawm cov ntawv no rau kev kuaj xyuas los ntawm cov kws tshaj lij, cov neeg saib xyuas ntawm Newtonian archive. Nws tau ua pov thawj tias cov ntaub ntawv digital tshaj tawm los ntawm Pascal ntawm Lub Hnub, Jupiter, Saturn thiab Lub Ntiaj Teb rov hais dua cov ntaub ntawv uas tau muab rau hauv tsab ntawv ntawm Newton cov hauj lwm luam tawm xyoo 1726. Ib ntawm cov ntawv hais txog kas fes, uas yog thawj coj mus rau Western Europe los ntawm lub Turkish ambassador tsuas yog nyob rau hauv 1669, xya xyoo tom qab Pascal tuag. Hauv kev teb, Shal tau nthuav tawm ntau cov ntaub ntawv los ntawm nws cov neeg kawm tiav, los ntawm Fabkis cov vaj ntxwv Louis XIII thiab Louis XIV thiab Askiv huab tais James II rau Pascal tus viv ncaus, kws sau paj huam John Milton thiab ntau lwm tus. Los ntawm cov ntawv nws tau pom tseeb tias Newton ib txwm khib Pascal, nrog rau Descartes, uas nws nrhiav tau nws tsim nyog.

Ntawm lub rooj sib tham tom ntej ntawm lub koom haum, Chal tau tshwm sim nrog lwm cov ntaub ntawv, lub sij hawm no cov ntawv los ntawm Galileo mus rau Pascal, nyob rau hauv uas nws tau hais tias tus kws tshawb fawb Fabkis tau nthuav tawm nws tus tij laug Italian nto moo nrog kev xav txog txoj cai ntawm kev nqus dej thoob ntiaj teb. Cov neeg thuam tau txheeb xyuas ob qhov yuam kev hauv cov ntawv uas tau nthuav tawm: lawv tau tham txog lub hli ntawm Saturn, pom ntau tom qab, xyoo 1655, los ntawm Dutchman Huygens. Tsis tas li ntawd, Galileo tau dig muag tau plaub xyoos los ntawm lub sijhawm nws "sau" cov ntawv. Shawl tuaj yeem teb cov lus tsis txaus siab no thiab. Nws tau nthuav tawm lwm tsab ntawv rau Galileo, qhov uas nws tau tshaj tawm tias nws tsuas yog qee qhov poob nws qhov pom thiab nthuav tawm cov ntaub ntawv hais txog nws qhov muag tsis pom kev txhawm rau zam kev tsim txom los ntawm Inquisition.

Nws saib Saturn los ntawm lub tsom iav raj, uas nws tau muab rau Pascal, thiab nws tau muab rau Huygens. Tab sis nyob rau lub Plaub Hlis 1869, twb tau luam tawm, Shal tau nthuav tawm nrog cov pov thawj tias feem ntau ntawm nws cov ntawv sau los ntawm Pascal thiab nws cov neeg sau xov xwm nto moo yog cov ntaub ntawv qiv los ntawm A. Severien's History of New Philosophy, luam tawm xyoo 1761. Shal tau tso tseg qhov kev sib cav no thiab. paub tseeb tias nws tsuas piav Pascal cov ntaub ntawv paub rau nws. Chal tau nthuav tawm ib tsab ntawv los ntawm Montesquieu thiab ib daim ntawv los ntawm cov neeg nyiam tshaj plaws ntawm Louis XV, Madame Pompadour Severien, thiab cov lus teb los ntawm tus kws sau keeb kwm ntawm Kev Ntseeg Tshiab nrog kev ris txiaj rau cov ntawv xov xwm tseem ceeb siv.

Qhov no tau ua raws li kev liam ntawm kev tsim cov ntawv uas twb muaj lawm los ntawm Severien lub sijhawm thiab cov ntaub ntawv tshiab qhia los ntawm Shal, uas yuav tsum ua pov thawj rau qhov tseeb ntawm cov ntawv xa tawm yav dhau los thiab muaj cov lus piav qhia tsis tseeb rau qhov tsis raug thiab anachronisms qhia hauv lawv ntxiv. Tag nrho cov kev ncig ncig no tuaj txog thaum kawg thaum cov ntawv luam ntawm Galileo cov ntawv xa mus rau Florence tau lees paub tam sim los ntawm Italian kws tshaj lij. kev dag cuav … Shalyu yuav tsum tau thov txim rau pej xeem thiab thov kom tub ceev xwm pab nws rov qab 140,000 francs nws tau them rau peb txhiab tsab ntawv cuav.

Tus neeg xa khoom ntawm kev forging yog ib qho Wren-Luka, tus tub ntawm ib tug xib fwb hauv zosleej twg tsis tau txais kev kawm ntawv. Nws pib los ntawm kev sau cov noob caj noob ces ntawm cov tsev neeg muaj koob muaj npe. Luca tau txais cov hang ntawm kev txawj luam los ntawm cov phau ntawv, tab sis qhov ntxiv los ntawm nws qhia tau hais tias nws tsis muaj peev xwm ua tiav cov qauv thiab kev xav ntawm cov neeg ntawm ntau lub sijhawm. Nws hais rau Shaly ib zaj dab neeg hais tias cov ntaub ntawv uas nws tau muag tau muab los ntawm kev sau los ntawm suav Boisjourdin, uas tau khiav tawm ntawm Fabkis txoj kev tawm tsam xyoo 1791. Lub nkoj tau tawg, ib feem ntawm cov khoom sau tau ploj lawm, thiab cov tswv cuab kawg ntawm tsev neeg noble pib muag cov ntaub ntawv ntxiv.

Ntawm lawv yog cov khoom muaj nqis zoo li cov tsiaj ntawv ntawm Alexander lub Great, Cicero, Julius Caesar, Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes, Euclid, Egyptian huab tais Cleopatra, huab tais Augustus thiab Nero, cov kws sau paj lug Ovid thiab Virgil, cov kws tshawb fawb thiab cov kws tshawb fawb ntawm Seneca., Pliny, Tacitus, Plut Dante, Petrarch, tus inventor ntawm typography Gutenberg, Machiavelli, Luther, Michelangelo, Shakespeare thiab hais txog, txoj cai mus txog Mary Magdalene, Judas Iscariot, King Herod thiab Pontius Pilate. Cov ntawv ntawm Fabkis cov tub rog, cov kws sau ntawv thiab cov kws tshawb fawb tau nthuav dav tshwj xeeb - los ntawm Charlemagne mus rau Richelieu, los ntawm Joan of Arc mus rau Voltaire thiab Rousseau. Nyob rau tib lub sijhawm, txawm tias Julius Caesar thiab Cleopatra tau qhia lawv tus kheej hauv lawv cov ntawv hlub. nyob rau hauv niaj hnub Fabkis … Luca mob siab me ntsis txog qhov tshwm sim ntawm nws qhov kev dag ntxias, uas nws dhau los ua qhov qub. Thaum nws raug tshem tawm ntawm lub tsev qiv ntawv, qhov twg nws nrog txiab txiav tawm daim ntawv dawb paug ntawm cov qub folios … Abelard cov ntawv rau Héloise feem ntau tau sau rau ntawm daim ntawv nrog watermark ntawm Angoulême Hoobkas. Lukas tsuas yog tsis muaj sijhawm los mus rau hauv cov subtleties zoo li no - tom qab tag nrho, nws tau forged tsis tsawg nrog nws txhais tes - 27,000 (peb caug xya txhiab!)ntau yam ntaub ntawv. Nws raug sim hauv xyoo 1870 thiab raug kaw rau 2 xyoos hauv tsev lojcuj.

Txawm tias tus kws tshawb fawb nto moo Yauxej Justus Scaliger nyob rau tib lub sijhawm tau muab tso ua ke pub dawb ntawm cov kws sau ntawv Greek thaum ub, dhau los ua haujlwm ntawm qee yam Astrampsychus. Ntau tus paub tias nws yog antique.

Nyob rau hauv tus txheej txheem ntawm kev kawm European kev vam meej, ib tug tshiab teb rau forgeries tshwm sim (mastered, li cas los xij, feem ntau nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua 19th) txog cov neeg, txog nws yav dhau los nyob rau hauv lub pre-Roman lub sij hawm yuav luag tsis muaj ntaub ntawv nyob rau hauv sau ntawv - Celts, inhabitants ntawm cov Phoenician thiab Greek cov nyob sab hnub poob ntawm lub tebchaws, Etruscans, Iberians, Vikings, Franks.

Qee cov hauj lwm uas nyiam txoj cai thiab kev muaj koob npe nyob rau lub sijhawm thaum ub thiab tsis muaj sia nyob lossis los ntawm cov khoom sib cais, nyiam cov neeg dag ntxias vim yog tus sau lub npe lossis cov ntsiab lus tau piav qhia hauv lawv. Qee lub sij hawm nws yog hais txog tag nrho cov sequential forgeries ntawm ib tug muaj pes tsawg leeg, tsis yog ib txwm kom meej meej txuas nrog ib leeg.

Ib qho piv txwv yog ntau yam kev sau ntawv ntawm Cicero, ntau yam uas tau tsim nyob rau hauv Askiv thaum kawg ntawm lub xyoo pua 17th thiab pib ntawm lub xyoo pua 18th. kub sib cav txog qhov muaj peev xwm heev vim kev dag thawj qhov chaw ntawm kev paub keeb kwm tiag tiag.

Cov ntawv sau ntawm Ovid nyob rau hauv Lub Nrab Hnub nyoog thaum ntxov tau siv los suav nrog cov dab neeg zoo kawg nkaus uas lawv muaj nyob rau hauv biography ntawm cov ntseeg ntseeg. Nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua 13th, tag nrho cov hauj lwm raug ntaus nqi rau Ovid nws tus kheej. Tus German humanist Prolucius nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua 16th ntxiv ib tshooj xya rau Ovid's "Calendar". Lub hom phiaj yog los ua pov thawj rau cov neeg tawm tsam tias, tsis zoo li cov lus pov thawj ntawm tus kws sau paj huam nws tus kheej, qhov haujlwm ntawm nws tsis muaj rau, tab sis kaum ob tshooj.

Lwm qhov piv txwv ntawm kev dag ntxias yog qhov cuav ntxiv rau Satyricon, tus sau uas, Petronius, nyob ze rau Nero, tau txais kev hwm raws li tus neeg nyiam thiab saj zoo thiab raug tua los ntawm huab tais tawm ntawm kev khib ntawm nws lub yeeb koob. Ib feem ntawm cov ntawv tshiab, uas muab ib daim duab tiag tiag ntawm Roman kev lis kev cai ntawm lub sijhawm ntawd, raug liam tias pom nyob rau nruab nrab ntawm lub xyoo pua 17th hauv Trau, hauv Dalmatia, los ntawm Martin Statilius. Cov fragment ntxiv 30 nplooj ntawv rau cov nplooj ntawv uas twb paub lawm ntawm Satyricon. Qhov yuam kev grammatical pom nyob rau hauv cov ntawv nyeem ua rau peb xav tias ib tug forging. Txawm li cas los xij, cov kws tshaj lij suav tias qhov kev lees paub yog qhov tseeb.

Feem ntau ntawm cov forgeries nyob rau hauv nqe lus nug yog ib hom kev xav ntawm lub peculiarities ntawm tsis tsuas yog kev nom kev tswv kev tawm tsam, tab sis kuj lub prevailing cua ntawm lub dag boom. Yam tsawg kawg yog qhov piv txwv no tso cai rau ib tus los txiav txim nws qhov ntsuas. Cov kws tshawb fawb kwv yees tias nyob rau Fabkis ntawm 1822 thiab 1835 ntau dua 12000 Cov ntawv sau, cov ntawv thiab lwm cov ntawv sau npe ntawm cov neeg nto moo, hauv xyoo 1836-1840 tau muab tso rau muag ntawm kev sib tw 11000, nyob rau hauv 1841-1845 - kwv yees li 15000Xyoo 1846-1859 - 32000 … Qee tus ntawm lawv tau raug nyiag los ntawm cov tsev qiv ntawv pej xeem thiab ntiag tug thiab khaws cia, tab sis feem ntau yog cuav. Kev nce hauv kev thov tau ua rau muaj kev nce ntxiv hauv cov khoom siv, thiab kev tsim khoom ntawm forging yog ua ntej ntawm kev txhim kho hauv cov txheej txheem ntawm kev kuaj xyuas lawv nyob rau lub sijhawm no. Cov kev vam meej ntawm natural sciences, tshwj xeeb tshaj yog chemistry, uas ua rau nws ua tau, tshwj xeeb tshaj yog, los txiav txim lub hnub nyoog ntawm cov ntaub ntawv nyob rau hauv nqe lus nug, tshiab, raws li tseem tsis zoo tag nrho txoj kev ntawm exposing hoaxes yog siv es ib tug tshwj xeeb.

Nws yog nyob rau hauv cov xyoo nruab nrab ntawm lub xyoo pua 19th, uas peb tab tom tham txog, lub npe ntawm Greek Simonides tau txais koob meej nyob rau hauv lub voj voog ntawm cov kws tshaj lij hauv keeb kwm ntawm lub ntiaj teb thaum ub thiab cov neeg sau. Ua ntej, nws nthuav tawm cov khoom tsis paub los ntawm Hesiod, Homer, Anacreon, zoo li nws tau txais los ntawm nws tus txiv ntxawm. Xav tau lawv yuav ntau npaum li cas ntawm British Tsev khaws puav pheej koom tes nrog University of Athens. Tsuas yog ib ntawm kaum ob tus kws tshaj lij xav tias kev dag ntxias thiab tau ua pov thawj tias yav dhau los tsis paub cov nqe lus los ntawm Homer rov tsim dua tag nrho cov typos hauv kev tshaj tawm tsis ntev los no ntawm tus kws sau paj huam ua haujlwm los ntawm German Publishing House Wolf. Cov seem ntawm cov paj huam Greek thaum ub uas tau hais los ntawm Simonides tau tsis lees paub los ntawm British Tsev khaws puav pheej, uas txawm li cas los xij tau txais qee yam ntawm nws cov ntawv sau. Ob peb yam khoom ntxiv tau yuav los ntawm ib tus neeg sau khoom qub qub. Simonides hais ntxiv tias nws tau pom keeb kwm yav dhau los ntawm Armenia. Nyob rau hauv lub vaj ntawm Egyptian Khedive Ismail Pasha, zoo li nws tau pom ib lub thawv tag nrho cov ntaub ntawv. Lub Duke ntawm Sunderland tau yuav cov ntawv los ntawm Greek nom tswv Alcibiades Pericles thiab lwm yam nrhiav tau nyiaj loj.

Simonides tau thov kom tau taug qab cov neeg Iyiv keeb kwm ntawm tus sau phau ntawv qub Urania. Cov ntawv nyeem ntawm Urania, raws li Simonides, yog nyob rau hauv plaub txheej ntawm lwm cov ntawv sau thaum ub, cov tub ceev xwm siab tshaj plaws hauv tebchaws Yelemes tau lees paub keeb kwm ntawm Urania tias yog qhov tseeb, uas ua rau huab tais Prussian yuav cov ntawv sau. Microscopic thiab tshuaj ntsuam xyuas ntawm cov ntawv sau qhia ib qho kev dag, uas tau lees paub los ntawm Prussian Academy of Sciences. Simonides raug ntes rau kev dag ntxias; thaum tshawb nrhiav hauv nws chav tsev, cov ntaub ntawv thiab cov haujlwm tshawb fawb tau pom, uas nws kos cov ntaub ntawv. Ntaus los ntawm tus lej ntawm cov ntawv sau ntawm kev pov tseg ntawm Simonides - txog ob thiab ib nrab txhiab, thiab ib txhia ntawm lawv yog heev voluminous. Ib phau ntawv muaj 770 nplooj ntawv. Simonides tau sib cav tias Urania cov ntawv sau yog ib daim ntawv theej ntawm qhov ploj lawm, thiab lub tsev hais plaub Berlin tau txiav txim rau nws. Thaum nws rov qab los rau London, Simonides raug liam tias, tej zaum tsis muaj laj thawj zoo, ntawm forging papyri nrog cov ntawv qub. Nws tuag hauv Alexandria. Cov lus nug ntawm seb qee qhov ntawm nws cov ntawv sau yog tiag lossis cuav, tseem tsis tau txais kev ntseeg siab.

Cov ntaub ntawv ntawm lub ntsiab lus no: